Photography involves the generation of images through cameras, instruments that optimize the impact of light on a photosensitive material: light affects this material (photographic film) through an opening normally equipped with camera lenses.
The film, on the other hand, when it receives the light reflected by the photographed object, reproduces with great fidelity on its two-dimensional surface the image of the photographed object. With the evolution of the equipment involved in the photographic processes, there are today several accessories for image optimization, allowing the reproduction of images in the most varied lighting conditions and always allowing different brightness results and color effects.
- Such accessories are the lenses (such as the telephoto lens.
- Which is used to capture images of objects at a greater distance.
- The macro.
- Which is used in the case of the proximity of objects with the camera.
- And the wide angle.
- Also called?Eye-of-fish ?.
- Which increases the camera’s field of view.
- In some cases generating distortions in the reproduced images).
- As well as filters (such as polarizing filters.
- Which can filter and thus reduce the great reflectivity of glass and metal objects) and films.
- With the most varied features.
- Such as the degree of photosensitivity.
- Color and black and white films.
The photographic process still involves laboratory work in the revealing of films: in dark rooms, images obtained in negative photographic films are expanded on positive photographic papers using the photo magnifying glass. The papers undergo subsequent chemical processes, being bathed in different chemical compounds such as developer and fixer (sodium hyposulfate or ammonium). After bathing and subsequent washing of photographic papers, they will move to a drying period. These processes eventually lead to photos. The origin of the use of photography was linked to aesthetic and artistic purposes. Today, however, photography is used both as a means of communication (in journalism and advertising) and in the creation of images aesthetically elaborated for artistic purposes.
Photography (after Greek photos, “light” and graphs, “recorded”) is a technical process by which an image is recorded by the action of light on a surface (plate, film or paper) covered with ‘a layer of silver salts, sensitive to light. By extension, it includes the formation of images resulting from the action of certain invisible radiations (ultraviolet and infrared rays) and images recorded in other sensitive materials that do not contain silver, using chemical or physical processes. or both, combined. Other techniques are linked to the photographic process, such as the recording of X-ray images, electron beams and nuclear radiation and the recording and transmission of static or dynamic light images, in the form of electromagnetic signals (television and video cassette).
Photography was born from many experiments by alchemists and chemists on the action of light. Since 1525, we know the blackening of silver salts. The work of the German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze in 1727 and the Swiss chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1777 showed that the blackening of salts is due to the action of light. After inventing physio-trace and lithography, Frenchman Joseph-Nicéphore Niepce obtained, in 1817, images of silver chloride on paper. In 1822, he fixed a slightly contrasting image on a metal plate: the clear parts of Judean bitumen (insoluble under the action of light) and shadows on the metal base. Four years later, Niepce produced the world’s first photograph, taken from the window of his home and preserved today.
Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre researched Niepce from 1829 and ten years later launched the process called a daguerreotype, in which a silver plate and polished copper, subjected to iodine vapors, formed a layer of silver iodide on top. Dark chamber (four to ten minutes, depending on the illumination of the object, and aperture af/15), this plate was revealed in heated mercury vapour, which adhered to the parts where the light fell and showed the images, fixed by a sodium thiosulphate solution. Although the daguerreotype does not allow copies, the Daguerre system is spreading rapidly around the world. The initially very long laying times were shortened by the work of the Austrian Friedrich Voigtlander, who created in 1840 goalposts with a larger opening size, and the British John F. Goddard, who resensitized the plaque with bromine.
In 1841, British chemist William Henry Fox Talbot launched another process to obtain and fix images, the calotype, exposed to light a paper impregnated with silver iodide in a dark room, then revealed the image with galic acid and fixed with sodium thiosulphate. This resulted in a negative, which was impregnated with oil until it became transparent, the positive was, as now, by contact with sensitized paper, although the calotype has less definition than the daguerreotype, was the first phase of the development of photography, in which the daguerreotype would result in photograving, a process used to reproduce photographs in magazines and newspapers.
In 1851, the British Frederick Scott Archer invented wet collodion emulsion, to a pyroxylin solution in ether and alcohol, added a soluble iodide, with a certain amount of bromide, and covered a glass plate with preparation. The iodine collodion, submerged in a silver bath, formed silver iodide with excess nitrate. Still wet, the plaque was exposed to light in the chamber, revealed by pyrogalyl immersion with acetic acid and fixed with sodium thiosulphate. In 1864, the process was perfected and a dry emulsion of silver collodion bromide was launched. In 1874, emulsions began to be washed with running water to remove residual salts and preserve plates. Three years earlier, however, British Richard Leach Maddox made the first dried gelatin plates instead of collodion. By 1877, large companies were already dominating the trade in fast emulsions.
Films. Like glass plates? emulsion carriers? They were fragile and heavy, looking for light and flexible materials. In 1870, the American John W. Hyatt discovered cellulose. The supply of this material in flexible coils in 1875 marked the beginning of the transformation. In 1884, George Eastman and two associates launched a camera (the first Kodak) with a roll of negatives large enough to take a hundred photographs. These portable cameras are returned to the factory for film development and recharging. Flexible transparent films came to light with the discovery of nitrocellulose solubility in wood alcohol in 1889. In 1891, the industry offered for sale films that could be loaded for days and, in 1903, films in packages. security, magazine type. Flammable cellulose acetate was replaced in 1908 by cellulose nitrate in the preparation of the film base. In the 1950s, triacetate replaced nitrate, and in 1956, polyester began to be used in filmmaking with the benefits of optical clarity, increased strength, and almost complete tolerance to moisture.
Developers. Frenchman Henri-Victor Regnault and German Justus von Liebig discovered pyrogamic acid, which is stronger than mercury vapour and golic acid. In 1861, silver nitrate was dispensed with revelators and alkaline revelation with pyrogalol was discovered. William Abney, in 1880, developed photos with hydroquinone. Other revelers came: in 1888, paraphenylendiamine; 1891, metol, then phenidone.
Photography is often defined as “the art of writing with light. “It is light, to a large extent, that determines the quality of the photo. A basic concept of photography directly associated with light intensity is exposure, the relationship between the amount of light and the timing of its impact on sensitive material. Defined by the E-it formula, the exposure is equal to the product of light intensity by impact time. The sensitivity of the film determines the speed of the photosensitive material, that is, the track that reveals the need for exposure of the material to obtain a good image record. The speed is inversely proportional to exposure: the more sensitive the material, the shorter the exposure time.
Opacity and density. The negative opacity index is its density or the ability of a paper or film area to absorb light. High-density areas absorb large amounts of light and appear darker in the negative and lighter in the copy. Veil density is the density residue of an uns foregoed part of the sensitive material. Some development methods or secondary light sources can create a negative veil, which is considered a defect.
Contrast: A photograph, in black and white or color, has different shades, this variation is given by contrast, which varies images from shadows and semitones to highlights, intensely white parts of the photographed object. tones is called gradation.
Resolution: Any photographic material has the property of recording, in a more or less visible way, the details of the photographed object, this capability is the resolution power of the film, usually cataloged in pairs of lines per millimeter, to offer the possibilities of final photography. There are sophisticated instruments that measure the performance of lenses and films, in terms of sharpness and contrast, from reading these instruments we get a graph that provides the MTF curve (modulation transfer function).
Photographic emulsions: Although commonly referred to as “emulsion”, the sensitive material used in photography is actually a suspension of microparticles of silver halide crystals scattered in a colloidal medium, currently gelatinous, that isolates and protects them. part of the emulsion is composed, for negative emulsions, of silver bromide with a small amount of iodine or, for positives and photographic papers, silver chloride with bromide. Sensitive particles, or grains, of the same crystallographic composition vary in shape, size, composition and reaction to light. A sensitive material is classified into: 1) small slow grain and high contrast emulsions; 2) Fast large grain emulsions with less contrast.
Some emulsions are not sensitive to all colors. Silver salts are only sensitive to blue, violet and ultraviolet. With the addition of sensitizing dyes, emulsions sensitive to other colors are obtained. As for spectral sensitivity, photographic emulsions are: 1) ordinary, sensitive to blue, violet and ultraviolet, used for graphic purposes; 2) orthochromatic, radiation sensitive and greenish yellow; 3) panchromatic, general purpose, sensitive to any luminous radiation, maximum for blue and minimum for red; 4) Infrared emulsions, used for technical purposes.
The sensitivity scale of photographic films, adopted internationally, is ISO, and their indices are represented graphically, for example, as 200/24o. The first part of this index (200), arithmetic, shows a value directly proportional to sensitivity and is identical to the ASA index (from the American Standard Association, or American Association of Technical Standards), still in use. The second part, logarithmic, increases by 3 for each duplication of speed and corresponds to the DIN scale that is still used in some European countries. Countries. An ISO 200/24o film has twice the sensitivity of an ISO 100/21o film and half as much as an ISO 400/27o film. General purpose films have a sensitivity between 80/20o and 200/24o ISO; Fine grain materials, for maximum image definition, range from 25/15o to 64/19o ISO; and fast and ultra-fast movies, for low light environments or for special purposes, from 400/27o to 1600/33o.
Revelation For the revealing of the film it is necessary to treat it with a chemical solution containing several compounds, dosed for the controlled reduction of halogenide grains exposed to metallic silver, in order to convert the latent image into a visible image.
The developers are composed of
(1) the development agents themselves, organic compounds whose reducing energy reveals only the exposed grains, the main being starch, which deteriorates easily; glycine, slow and powerful action; hydroquinone, low energy and contrasting; methanol, fast and durable; paraminophenol, which with fast and gentle action, does not produce veil, even under the high temperatures of the tropics; paraphenylenediamine, which produces very fine grains and a black dichroic image, with transmitted light and cream, in reflected light; and pyrogalus, soft and slow acting, producing black images and a yellow veil and sepia color with good contrast.
2) Preservatives, which protect development agents in solution from air oxidation. The most commonly used is sodium sulphite, amorphous or crystalline. Sodium bisulfite and potassium metabisulphite are added to the solution when high levels of bisulfite are required, without increasing pH. include stanneux chloride, mannitol, sorbitol, benzoic acid, glycolic acid and salicylic acid.
3) Accelerators, alkaline substances or compounds that can be combined with sulphites used to accelerate the activity of development agents. They form complexes that hydrolyze, release hydroxyl ions and produce an alkali. The most commonly used alkali as an activator is sodium carbonate; followed by borates, trisodium phosphate, sodium sulphite, sodium hydroxides, potassium and ammonium and organic alkalis, such as triethanolamine.
4) Moderators, whose main function is to reduce or eliminate the appearance of a veil The presence of alkaline moderators, such as potassium bromide, potassium iodide or sodium chloride, in revealing solutions decreases the ionization of silver halide and decreases the concentration of silver ions, in order to moderate development. Other moderators employed are organic nitrogen-derived compounds, which form complexes with silver halide. These are 6-nitrobencimidazole, benzotriazole, 5-chlorobencimidazole, thiocetanalide and tetrazole.
5) Special agents, substances intended to act under difficult conditions, added to the developer solutions. The best known are: a) Solvents: methyl, ethyl and isopropyl alcohols; (b) water softeners (for use in hard water, containing calcium, magnesium and iron ions in solution), such as sodium hexametaphosphate; (c) wetting agents (which decrease the surface tension between the solution and the surface to be developed), composed of organic fatty acids; (d) inflation agents (to prevent gelatin from softening too much); (e) gelatin hardeners: alum, aluminium sulfate, formaldehyde, tannic acid; (f) penetration controllers: sugar, dextrin, glycerol and others; and (h) silver halide solvents: potassium thiocyanate, ammonium chloride (for the development of fine grains), ammonia and ammonia salts (in tonal inversion processes).
Fixing and washing. For the photographic image to become permanent, it is necessary to dissolve all the light-sensitive silver halogens left in the emulsion after the reveal. Fixation is the process of converting halogen into complex salts soluble in water. Substances are added to the fixator baths that interrupt development, prevent turbidity and harden gelatine. The most commonly used fixer is sodium thiosulphate, commonly known as hyposulfite or hiccups. Fixer baths are classified into: (1) baths containing 15% to 40% hyposulphite in water (when gelatin does not need to harden or in the case where the presence of an acid would alter granulosity or change the tone of printing); (2) neutral fixative baths, using sodium sulphite fixator, with anti-fog properties and longer life; (3) acid baths, which neutralize the developer, stop the reveal and prevent turbidity, and also contain thiosulphate and sodium bisulfite; (4) acid hardening baths, with sodium thiosulphate, sodium sulphite, acetic acid and potassium alum.
Washing, which removes excess reagents formed during the fixation process, is usually done with running water or in aqueous solutions containing hydrogen peroxide and ammonia. The washing time is twenty minutes for the movies; twenty to sixty minutes for normal weight copy paper; 35 to 120 minutes for double-gram paper.
Fotocromía. La first color photograph was taken in 1891, but the basic principles of color photography as we know it are due to James C. Maxwell, who photographed colored ribbons through red, green and blue filters. In addition to the negatives, Maxwell produced three positive blacks – transparencies in black and white; projects them onto a screen simultaneously using three flashlights, each with a light corresponding to the color of the filter used in the negative. The image reproduces the colored ribbons.
Ducos du Haron, in 1869, exhibited the basic methods of color photography: additive and subtractive. In the additive method, deprecated, the white color is produced by adding red, green and blue, both by simultaneously projecting three monochromes. images on a canvas; When it comes to projecting images in quick succession on the screen; or by the formation of small monochromatic juxtaposed images.
In subtractive methods, three negatives are performed separately with red, green and blue lights, then positives are produced with complementary colors to those used to achieve the negative, and all three are copied simultaneously on white paper or other film. the red light is copied in blue-green (cyan), the blue light is copied in yellow and the green light in magenta. The process was released in 1935 by Eastman Kodak (Kodachrome): instead of treating negatives separately or simultaneously one by one, the three (tripack or monopack) are completely overlapping.
The camera, which exhibits light-sensitive materials, operates according to the optical principle of the dark camera, known since 400 BC. and studied by Alhazen, Roger Bacon, Leonardo da Vinci, Girolamo Cardano, Danielo Barbiero and Ignazio Danti. a room completely without light, in which one of the walls had a hole, through which an inverted image was projected onto the opposite wall. The first camera was manufactured by Alphonse Giroux at the request of Daguerre (1839), in Paris. of two wooden boxes that glided together to concentrate; an achromatic lens, with metal lid capable of functioning as a shutter; frosted glass to focus on; and a support for sensitive cards. Other models appeared later, but after Talbot invented cameras with telescopic boxes, there were no major changes.
Description and operation. The camera consists of the following: 1) the shutter, which allows light to enter the camera for a specific time; 2) the lens, element that captures the image; 3) supports for sensitive material; 4) A waterproof case that keeps the lens and material supports in the correct position; 5) A viewfinder to display the object to be photographed. Accessories are artificial lighting equipment (photo and flash lamps), tripods, filters, interchangeable lenses, rangefinders, photometers and others.
Diaphragm and shutter. The aperture through the light in the old boxes has been replaced by an adjustable diaphragm, which can vary the aperture and amount of light the film will receive. The different apertures are designated by the f/N rating, where N, in Most modern cameras can be: f /1. 4, f/2, f/2. 8, f/4, f/5. 6, f/8, f/11, f/16 yf/22 (number f is obtained by dividing the focal length of the lens by the diameter of its front element).
While the diaphragm controls the amount of light, the shutter regulates the exposure speed. The most sophisticated cameras allow multiple exposure speeds, today, in general, 1 sec, 1/2 sec, 1/4 sec, 1/8 sec, 1/15 sec, 1/30 sec, 1/60 sec, 1/125 sec, 1/250 sec, 1/500 sec and 1/1000 sec and, in some electronic models, 1/4 000 do even higher speeds. The common type of shutter (compur) is mounted between the front and rear elements of the lens. When the trigger is pressed, several circular areas jump concentrically and return to the primitive position. Subsequently, the horizontal curtain shutter type was loosened.
The image is sharper when the lens adjusts to the exact distance of the subject. As a scene normally includes objects at different distances from the camera, there is a natural loss of sharpness. In a certain range, however, the loss of sharpness is less. almost imperceptible This range is called depth of field. In addition to controlling the amount of light that reaches the film in a given period of time, the aperture of the aperture also determines the depth of field. The smaller the aperture (number f), the greater the depth of field. , are joined at high speed, which limits the time of incidence of light, and a greater aperture of the diaphragm. At speeds of less than 1/50 seconds, the camera must be supported by a tripod to stay stable.
Objectives. Simple cameras have a single lens, mounted on the hole that allows light reflected by the subject to reach the film. The most sophisticated ones use anastigmatic optical systems that, by juxtaposing two or more lenses, correct optical aberrations. The focal length is that between the optical center of the lens and the plane of the film, when a distant object is in focus. Cameras are usually equipped with focal length lenses almost equal to the diagonal of the film they use. The normal lens of a camera using a 135 (24 mm x 36 mm) film has a focal length of 50 mm. Lenses with focal lengths below the normal lens are called wide-angle lenses, while longer-distance lenses are called telephoto lenses. the lens, the lower the depth of field.
Wide angle. Equipped with a wide-angle lens, the camera reproduces a larger area of the subject. It is widely used in architectural and interior photographs. It is necessary to zoom the camera to the object to get a larger image.
Telephoto lens. With a narrower viewing angle than the normal lens, the telephoto lens reproduces a smaller area of the subject, but on a larger scale. It is useful for photos of difficult-to-address models, such as children, animals, architecture details and sports scenes.
Zoom Objective with variable focal length, the zoom can be used, continuously, as a wide angle, normal or telephoto lens, in this way the operator, without moving, moves from an approximate plane to a distant scene.
Iluminación. La exposure can be measured using photometers, tables and calculators. The type of lighting determines how the photo will play the subject. The position and orientation of the light can be used to create contrast effects, smooth the subject, or flatten planes. If there is not enough light, the photographer uses artificial lighting. The most common fonts are photoflood and popular flash. Photooflood is a powerful lamp, usable in ordinary current, that produces continuous light. The flash produces intense but momentary light. It is useful for photographing moving objects in low light conditions. The flash and camera must be synchronized to work at the same time.
Main types of cameras. Cameras can be classified according to the type of film they use or the viewfinder they work with. Currently, most cameras use roll films 35 mm wide, with up to 36 photos (135 films), although 9. 5 mm (110) and 16 mm (126) are also common, professionals, on the other hand, preferably use films of 135 or 120 (6 x 6 cm). All cameras can be grouped into non-SLR and SLR. In the first, the view of the image through the Viewer is direct and does not exactly match that recorded in the film; In the others, a system of mirrors and prisms between the lens and the viewfinder allows the photographer to see exactly the image to be recorded. SLR cameras can have a lens, when called SLR (single lens SLR, monocular SLR lens), or two TLR (double lens reflex, dual SLR lens) In the 1990s, the integration of fixed zoom lenses into 35mm cameras resulted in a new category: the ZLR (SLR with zoom lens).
The studio or bellows camera is widely used by professional photographers to produce high quality photographs, especially for advertising. Almost always mounted on a tripod, this equipment uses 10. 2 x 12. 7 cm film sheets. Another type of instant-revealed camera, created in 1947, allows you to produce color copies in just one minute from a special film. This equipment has an important application in technical knowledge, such as those performed by insurance companies; lighting tests for studio photographs; and in medicine, endoscopic examinations.
Automation. At the end of the twentieth century, the incorporation of electronics into cameras was the main trend in the photographic equipment industry. The most modern cameras offer autofocus functions, a light measurement system and a flash. The machine is able to adjust the focus, using infrared rays or ultrasonic signals. On some models, the photographer chooses an AF point, in others, the system selects the sharpest image to focus on or detects where the photographer is looking. Electronic sensors fire the flash, when lighting is not adequate, and select shooting speeds, to compensate for the movements of the photographed object and the apertures of the target, depending on the ambient light.
Electronic photography. Magnetic photo imaging devices have emerged as a natural consequence of the evolution of computers and VCRs. Sony introduced the first magnetic photo recording equipment on floppy disks and tapes in 1981. In 1990, Kodak announced the release of the photo CD, capable of scanning 35 mm images and scanning them on compact discs. Recorded images can be played back on a TV screen or computer or printed on paper. In addition to competing with conventional machines, this type of equipment is able to transmit the image over a telephone line.
Technological field. Technology is a broad field of application for photography: it records invisible wavelength radiation to the human eye; incorporates very low radiation to obtain a visible recording; measures radiation intensity or records rapid movements imperceptible to the observer. In biology, metallurgy and petrography, microscopic photography is of great help to the researcher. In spectrography, you can also shoot with panchromatic or ordinary films, sensitive to blue for the ultraviolet area. The films are suitable for photographing in infrared light, in the dark and in the fog, through the skin, for the study of forged or deteriorated works of art and textiles. Ultraviolet photography is used to examine forged documents, restorations, detect invisible fingerprints or writes.
High-speed photographs are extremely important in science and technology because they allow you to record a phase or sequence of phases of very fast events, such as explosions. In astronomy, visual observation with telescope has already been almost entirely replaced by photography. The arts, printing processes, such as offset or composition (photocomposition), use photography. Also in topography, photography plays an important role, focusing on aerial photogrammetry surveying processes.
Photojournalism: Until the late 19th century, when the process of self-fortyping was perfected, with the introduction and improvement of lattice, the first publications to illustrate the news (Illustrated London News, Harper’s Weekly) used a woodcut reproduction of the photo. The first reproduction of a photo in a newspaper appeared in the New York Daily Graphic in 1880, and the first newspaper to be illustrated exclusively with photographs was the London Daily Mirror in 1904.
Before being used in the press, the photo was used as documentation for social reports. One of the pioneering photographic reports was Jacob Riis’ 1887 New York Evening Sun series on apartment buildings in New York City. Published in the paper, the photos were later collected in the book How the Other Half Lives (1890; How the other half lives). In the 1920s, with improvements to cameras, cinema and artificial lighting, the snapshot appeared and spread rapidly. In 1930, German Stefan Lorant defined: “The camera is the notebook of the experienced journalist. “
The first photographers were engravers, painters and designers, such as Niepce, Daguerre or Fox Talbot, and wanted a better way to capture reality. Photography has emerged with other original multiplication processes. William Newton formulated the first aesthetic of photography in 1853: It would be the photographer’s duty to respect the laws of fine arts and make photographs more “similar to works of art. “Henry P. Robinson’s book, Pictorial Effect in Photography (1869; Pictorial effect in photography), is a directory of academic formulas, applied in the following years. Oliver W. Holmes fought for a direct, functional and intact photograph, separated from the fine arts.
A London entity, The Linked Ring, has organized photography fairs to “put photography at the highest artistic level”. In the United States, in 1902, Alfred Stieglitz and his friends founded Photo-Secession, which organized cutting-edge photographic exhibitions and demonstrated the autonomy of photographic art, through which teachers such as Paul Strand, Edward Steichen and Edward Weston expressed themselves.
In the 1920s and 1930s, perhaps as a reflection of the post-war period, a more realistic style of photography emerged in the United States, which in Germany was represented by the “New Objectivity” movement. At the same time, the work of Hungarian André Kertész and the style that the Frenchman Henri Cartier-Bresson began to create?what would you later call the “decisive moment”?? helped transform photojournalism into an artistic genre.
Contexte: The daguerreoopic arrived in Brazil in 1840, brought by Father Combes, chaplain of a French school ship and author of the first three photographs taken on Brazilian soil: the Paço Imperial, the Valentim fountain and the Praia do Peixe in Rio de Janeiro . January: The first Brazilian to own a war camera was Emperor Pedro II, an amateur photographer. Marc Ferrez, a master of ancient photography in Brazil, brought dry plates, light autochromes and bromide-based papers, broke with the portrait and mercantile spirit and photographed, for the first time, Indians and ships on the high seas.
Other important names were Musso, a backing artist from the early 20th century; Paulino Botelho, of the Gazeta de Notacias who, in 1905, flew by balloon from Portugal to take aerial photographs of the city; and Augusto Malta, who photographed the Fire of the Telegraph Company, the collapse of the Engineering Club in 1906 and the launch of the ship Minas Gerais in 1908.
In the National Historical Museum there are photographs of the war in Paraguay, showing uniformed troops, the ruins of the Humait church and the Brazilian Forces Camp. There are other events in Vila do Rosio, in 1870, in which the Count of Eu, the Brazilian commander in chief of the last phase of the Paraguayan war, and his staff appear. Other photos show the Thanksgiving Mass for the signing of the Golden Law in 1888; and the departure, in 1889, of the Brazilian imperial family, into exile.
On the occasion of the first anniversary of the republic, Marc Ferrez photographed the party in front of the army barracks, the Spanish photographer and phototychist Juan Gutiérrez recorded the naval revolt in Rio de Janeiro in the 1880s and documented the Campaign of Canudos, where some of his photographs are believed to illustrate ancient editions of Os sertes, Euclides da Cunha. Other important collections from the early days of photography in Brazil belong to the Museum of Image and Sound of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, where the Collection of Malta is located. located; Cinemateca Brasileira in Sao Paulo; The Museum of Modern Art in Rio de Janeiro; General archives of the city of Rio de Janeiro; and the Historical and Geographical Institute of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro, which includes part of Gutierrez’s collection.